Radioactive metals and minerals in alphabetical order. Stones and minerals

Radioactive minerals- minerals containing natural radioactive elements (long-lived isotopes of the radioactive series 238 U, 235 U and 232 Th) in quantities significantly exceeding their average content in the earth's crust (clarks). More than 300 radioactive minerals are known. Radioactive minerals containing uranium, thorium, or both. The diversity of radioactive minerals belonging to different classes and groups is due to the presence of uranium in tetra- and hexavalent forms, the isomorphism of tetravalent uranium with Th, rare earth elements (TR), Zr and Ca, as well as the isomorphism of thorium with the TR of the cerium subgroup.

A distinction is made between radioactive minerals, in which uranium (uranium minerals) or thorium (thorium minerals) are present as the main component, and radioactive minerals, in which radioactive elements are included as an isomorphic impurity (uranium- and/or thorium-containing minerals). Radioactive minerals formally do not include minerals containing a mechanical admixture of radioactive minerals (mineral mixtures) or radioactive elements in sorbed form.

Radioactive minerals, especially those with a high content of uranium, especially large stones (the rate of natural radiation is 17-24 milliroentgen/hour), are dangerous to health and require special precautions in handling. An increased level of radiation from stones and minerals is a radiation level of 29-32 milliroentgen/hour and above. It is not recommended to carry or touch with hands - these minerals cause damage (including trophic ulcers on the skin and in the intestines when taken orally). In any case, for reasons of safety and environmental friendliness, it is forbidden to carry these radioactive stones and minerals and especially to keep samples of them in an apartment or office (a house and an apartment are not a mineralogical museum with a permissible level of radiation from 32 to 120 milliroentgen/hour and higher for special expositions and mineralogical special storage facilities of state institutions, where this is permitted in the presence of warning signs and special statements from employees of these specialized institutions). Radioactive minerals and their derivatives are transported in special containers, including lead container boxes. Radiation from a point source and a small object decreases in proportion to the square of the distance to this object. By moving 2 m away from a dangerous object, you will reduce the level of study from this object by 4 times. By moving 10 meters away, you will reduce the level of radiation from uranium by 100 times. If an object containing uranium and thorium has a point source of radiation of 4000 milliroentgen/hour with a natural ambient radiation background of 19 milliroentgen/hour (total 4000+19 = 4019 milliroentgen/hour), moving 10 m away from the dangerous object will protect yourself up to a radiation level of 40 milliroentgen/hour from the object and 19 milliroentgen/hour from the environment (in total, the total radiation level from the object and the environment will be 40+19 = 59 milliroentgen/hour). The most dangerous is direct contact with the body and wearing on the body of point and diffuse radioactive sources and components containing thorium and especially uranium (about 50% of radiation is absorbed upon contact with the external surface of the body and about 100% of radiation is absorbed when ingesting a radioactive or contaminated object) . The most dangerous is direct contact and ingestion of radioactive components, stones and minerals, including those in crushed form and those soluble in liquid.

Refining stones with radioactive irradiation is a method of improving their external characteristics, which the average consumer, unfortunately, knows little or is not aware of at all. The method is effective, but extremely dangerous for the health of the person who will wear these radioactive stones.

Why are radioactive stones dangerous?

Signs of previous irradiation include not only an unusually bright color of the stone, but also a color that is not entirely characteristic of it, and a strange pattern. This does not always mean that the mineral was irradiated uncontrollably, but it is worth being wary. For example, relatively small pale pink morganites (one of the varieties of beryl) can be enriched with microdoses of compounds of the radioactive element cesium. Moreover, their level of radioactivity usually does not exceed 0.19-0.24 µSv/h or 19-24 µR/h.

But, if you see a margonite in front of you that is too large and has an unusually bright color, there is a high probability that it is a radioactive stone hazardous to health, since uncontrolled irradiation methods were used during its processing.

Normally, the exposure dose of ionizing radiation near a stone should not exceed the natural radiation background of the area in which you are located. Usually this is no more than 0.10 -0.25 μSv/h or 10 - 25 μR/h. A level of radioactivity in a mineral exceeding 0.3 μSv/h or 30 μR/h is considered dangerous. Such stones cannot only be worn on the body, but also kept in the house or office. In contact with the skin for a long time, they can cause serious deterioration in health, including the formation of cancerous tumors in organs located near the point of contact.

Naturally radioactive stones

Most non-irradiated stones and minerals are safe for humans. But there are specimens with increased radioactivity, which are dangerous to your health if you keep them with you or wear them on your body. In particular, these include:

Celestine (strontium sulfate). It is more often found on sale in the form of interior decorations rather than jewelry.
Zircon (zirconium silicate). You should not purchase this stone on the black market or in a store with a dubious reputation unless you have a radiation dosimeter with you.
Heliodor (a type of beryl). The darker and larger the stone, the higher the likelihood of danger emanating from it.

The level of radioactivity of these minerals does not always exceed the norm, but it does not hurt to check the purchased samples with a dosimeter.

Measuring the radioactivity of stones as a method of protection

Sellers of jewelry with radioactive stones do not always intentionally deceive buyers. Often they are not aware of the danger that comes from such a product. Even being aware that the mineral was irradiated, many remain completely unaware of the consequences of such refining. Reasons: lack of special knowledge and education, lack of understanding of the very essence of this phenomenon. And how can you prove that the product you are buying is dangerous to wear?

It is truly impossible to do this without special devices. That is why many jewelers and craftsmen who work with stones always carry a portable radiation dosimeter with them. It helps to measure the dose rate of ionizing radiation near the object of interest. In this case - in close proximity to the decorative stone.

This is how they work with a dosimeter. First, the radiation background of the room is measured at a distance from the intended source of radiation. It is advisable to take measurements in several places and calculate the average. Then they begin to check the dose rate of the radiation that comes from the stones. If their level of radioactivity matches the background, then everything is fine. If there is a steady increase in the level of the natural background of the room, you should get rid of the stone immediately.

Which dosimeter is best to use to check the radiation safety of a stone?

It is most wise to use a dosimeter at the purchase stage, so as not to bring into the house ornamental raw materials or decorations that are hazardous to health. The optimal device for these purposes is a miniature radiation dosimeter RADEX ONE. The SBM-20 sensor installed in it detects beta and gamma radiation, taking into account x-ray radiation. The device is comparable in size and weight to a regular highlighter marker, so it will even fit in your pocket.

It’s even better to take a dosimeter to check RADEX RD1008, which also senses alpha radiation. Its dimensions are larger, but it will help identify stones irradiated not only in X-ray installations, but also in a nuclear reactor. The same dosimeters are suitable for measuring the level of radioactivity of previously purchased stones.

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Radioactive method refining (by irradiation with streams of high-energy elementary particles using nuclear reactors operating on uranium or plutonium) is usually hidden from the consumer, but the most dangerous method for human health to improve the qualities of any stones. At best, the consumer will be casually told that the mineral has been irradiated. Given the complete illiteracy of the population, the consumer simply will not pay attention to this. And the radiation icon familiar to many will not be nearby. Even when offering poisonous stones (for example, conichalcite or cinnabar) for exchange or sale, future owners are not warned about the danger of poisoning, let alone radiation, which is invisible, inaudible and unfelt...

You can carry a small stone on you if its radiation level does not exceed 22-24 milliroentgen/hour. Up to 25-28 milliroentgen/hour, the sample can be safely stored on a shelf in a room where there are no small children or elderly people. The critical threshold is 30 milliroentgen/hour. In Kharkov, the natural background radiation is 16-17 milliroentgen/hour, and the norm is background up to 21-23 milliroentgen/hour. That's probably all.

The literally disregarding attitude of stone sellers towards such a dangerous method of refining as radioactive and other irradiation and bombardment of elementary particles of minerals is striking. Buyers are told with complete confidence that any samples irradiated in a nuclear reactor, after a maximum of half a year, become completely harmless and harmless, supposedly the radiation remains only on the surface of the stone and can be easily washed off with plain water. The presence of nuclear reactions in the stone itself is indiscriminately denied. At the same time, sellers do not know anything about the penetrating ability and classification of this or that radiation, have no special education, are confused in scientific terminology and are absolutely not oriented in the elementary concepts of modern nuclear physics and modeling of physical processes (statistical and otherwise).

Agates, carnelians, topazes, diamonds, tourmalines, a group of beryls and other valuable and expensive minerals can be exposed to radioactive irradiation. A sign of irradiation may be an unusual, too bright or uncharacteristic color of the mineral, or an unusual, pronounced pattern, but not always.

In the case of irradiation, the radioactivity of irradiated samples may be higher than that of the natural background. This could give rise to modern tales about the weak radioactivity of agate or carnelian, which in fact in nature does not have an increased level of radiation and is completely harmless, but after irradiation in a reactor acquired these unusual qualities. We do not consider agates and carnelians and other stones found in places with a sharply increased natural background radiation - they will all be radioactive and dangerous. That is why some dubious experts advise treatment with agates and carnelians as supposedly weak sources of radiation. Let's focus only on artificially irradiated stones.

In most cases, the irradiation process itself occurs completely uncontrolled in nuclear reactors of third countries. Upgrading is carried out using technological holes and entrances that are not structurally intended for this. At the same time, no one controls whether radioactive elements or unstable elementary particles remain on the mineral, in what quantities they were captured and are located inside or on the surface of irradiated mineral samples. No one checks the degree of protection of minerals during such refining, does not analyze the radiation spectrum of the reactor, the interaction of radiation with the chemical elements present in the sample (especially heavy and rare earth elements), does not analyze possible nuclear reactions inside the sample during its irradiation, or the stability of various chemical elements after their irradiation.

The idea that radiation in small doses can have stimulating or healing effects seems strange, but this phenomenon has long been scientifically proven. Radiation is always associated with danger, damage and disease. It does cause many negative effects, but this only happens when we are talking about large doses of radiation, which really do nothing but harm. In our lungs, approximately 30 thousand radioactive atoms of radon, polonium, bismuth and lead that enter with the air decay daily (in the city and among smokers, this figure is much higher). With each meal, approximately 7 thousand uranium atoms enter the human intestines. Radiation in small doses is necessary. A reduced background radiation is no less dangerous for humans than an increased one. But the described methods of uncontrolled refining sharply increase the radiation emission of samples, destabilize their atoms and are therefore extremely dangerous.

Most people do not know that some elements, for example, non-radioactive and completely safe isotopes of uranium (90% of them are found in nature), after bombardment by high-energy elementary particles in a nuclear reactor, can turn into radioactive and dangerous isotopes of uranium (10% are found in nature, they are isolated when enriched, used in nuclear reactors or warheads of nuclear weapons), uranium atoms in the mineral can also capture heavier elementary particles and be converted into very dangerous radioactive plutonium, etc. typical nuclear reactions. All chemical elements that follow uranium and plutonium in the periodic table of Mendeleev have pronounced instability (and therefore radioactivity). After irradiation in a nuclear reactor, their behavior and decay reactions cannot be scientifically predicted, even statistically. What is known for certain is that the instability of elements increases sharply and the level of their natural radiation increases noticeably.

The most annoying thing is that The coloring of gemstones obtained by artificial irradiation often turns out to be unstable. Irradiated blue topaz of imported origin noticeably fades right in the window of a jewelry store within six months. Irradiated aquamarines and other stones rapidly lose their deep color in sunlight. But the hidden danger inside the stone continues to remain and works against the owner, like a time bomb.

Unrefined raw materials may not cost a cent or a penny. Refined raw materials can already be sold for money. For poor third and developing countries, the issue of money is very relevant. The photo on the left shows a presumably irradiated sample of agate from South America (the absence of continuous staining is indicated by unpainted cracks and unpainted transparent zones; the absence of heating is indicated by the unevenness of yellow and red coloring). The peculiarity of irradiation is the identification of hidden structural elements. X-ray irradiation and bombardment of some minerals with elementary particles makes their color deeper and more intense; even colorless stones can become colored. The pursuit of illegal profits too often leads to violations of mineral irradiation technology. In addition, in many third countries there are no clear standards for stone irradiation technologies or strict government control over their use (Ukraine and a number of CIS countries are not among them due to the competent work of the special services).

Unfortunately, sellers do not indicate this dangerous method of refining on the labels and accompanying certificates of precious and valuable stones. When purchasing large quantities of imported refined goods, it makes sense to have and pay for samples to be tested for radioactivity at the Institute of Metrology.

Semi-precious stones retain their color more stable and do not lose it for years. For example, uncontrolled irradiation in a nuclear reactor and that is why a radioactive carnelian or agate (even if very beautiful, with bright colors, with an original and pronounced design), worn as a pendant, can provoke breast or skin cancer in a middle-aged woman, or the malignant degeneration of harmless moles and birthmarks into sarcoma. Plain agate and even agate painted with dyes are completely safe if it has not been exposed to radioactive or x-ray irradiation.

Carrying on the chest (and not only) a radioactive piece of basalt or granite, as well as any mineral sample mined near uranium-containing (and therefore radioactive) rocks and layers or rocks with an increased background of radioactive radiation, on uranium can lead to disastrous results in the form of cancer. mines and radioactive rock dumps, as well as in radioactive waste disposal sites.

Often radioactive pieces are found in crushed stone and rubble stones from freshly quarried ordinary and familiar granite and basalt (on the street and on railway embankments such samples will be quite safe, but if they are in the yard, inside a house or its walls they can provoke radiation sickness) . Therefore, checking questionable mineral samples at the Institute of Metrology will never be superfluous. On the other hand, if the granite is on the street and people mostly walk and pass by next to it, its weak radioactivity will even be useful.

Some rocks are composed of just one mineral, but most contain two or more minerals. Granite, for example, is composed of quartz (white veins), mica (black inclusions) and feldspar (pink and gray inclusions, possibly slightly iridescent). If you look at a piece of rock through a magnifying glass, you can see the minerals that make it up. Volcanic rocks are formed when magma originating deep within the Earth cools and hardens. If this occurs underground, the rocks are called intrusive volcanic rocks (granite). If magma erupts from the craters of volcanoes and hardens on the surface, then the resulting rocks are called extrusive volcanic rocks (basalt, obsidian). Since nuclear decay reactions continue in the planet's core and liquid magma, fairly young volcanic rocks can be somewhat radioactive.

Rare earth and heavy elements are found in small quantities in such ornamental minerals of complex composition as eudialyte, charoite, some Ural ornamental gems, etc. The mineral celestine (pale blue crystals) is a strontium salt (sulfate). In any case, salts of strontium and other heavy and rare earth metals are radioactive. Radioactive strontium has a half-life of about 1,500 years. Lead is capable of absorbing a huge amount of high-energy elementary particles and harmful radiation, but after that it itself becomes dangerous. It should be kept in mind that such naturally radioactive or artificially irradiated rocks and mineral specimens can be quite beautiful and rare.

You should not carry or store anywhere radioactive rocks, minerals and materials illegally removed from the 30-kilometer zone around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (Ukraine), as they are hazardous to health. Even simply storing them in a room can cause serious illness. A nuclear reactor exploded in Chernobyl. remember, that Radiation is invisible, inaudible and odorless.

The method by which samples are exposed X-ray exposure in certified installations (for example, those intended for customs inspection of things or medical X-ray installations), is less dangerous and much more affordable than the use of nuclear reactors. X-ray radiation from such devices has been well studied and is much less dangerous than radiation from nuclear reactors. But the uncontrolled use of X-ray irradiation can also be harmful to the health of a person who has acquired X-ray-enhanced samples, since X-ray radiation can provoke nuclear decay reactions in the mineral that are enhanced compared to the natural background.

Unfortunately, this process of mineral refining is also completely uncontrolled. It can be performed in Ukraine and the CIS. Therefore, do not buy very dark and richly colored blue topazes, too dark purple amethysts, etc. If amethyst druses (crystal clumps) are purple all the way down to the base, and their tops are almost black (such specimens go on sale), this indicates that they have been home-made irradiated. Reasonable irradiation restores the lilac color of amethysts that have become gray or brown in the light. Most often, the bases of unrefined amethyst crystals are colorless (rock crystal) or milky white (opaque chalcedony), the color appears in the middle of the crystal or closer to its top, where the color is most intense.

The most harmless (and most unstable) type of stone refining, which can be done even at home, is ultraviolet irradiation under special ultraviolet lamps. No nuclear reactions occur during this process, since ultraviolet radiation itself cannot provoke them (even the most powerful, it is only ionizing). Even colorless or lightly colored specimens can develop unexpected colors (for example, a synthetic colorless sapphire will take on a wine-like hue not found in nature, resembling expensive topaz). You can experiment quite boldly with this method of refining, not forgetting to protect your eyes from ultraviolet radiation with special glasses.

By the way, visitors to solariums and lovers of artificial tanning under ultraviolet lamps would do well to remind that during these procedures you need to remove all jewelry, especially with precious stones, amethysts, quartz, topazes and sapphires, since their color can change even with short-term strong or prolonged weak ultraviolet irradiation.

CELESTINE

A rather soft mineral (hardness 3-3.5 units), which is now called celestine, was first discovered in Sicily in 1781. This strontium sulfate (SrSO4) received its modern name in 1798 thanks to the initiative of the German mineralogist A. Werner. He used the ancient Greek word caelestial (heavenly) to emphasize the delicate blue color of the crystals of the mineral he described. Traces of calcium and barium can sometimes be found in celestine. It is thanks to these substances that celestine crystals fluoresce in ultraviolet light. Celestite crystals are of hydrothermal origin and are found among granites and pegmatites formed at very high temperatures. Used as strontium ore. The mineral definitely cannot be dissolved in water or irradiated with anything, as this can have very dangerous consequences.

However, sometimes celestine crystals are formed as a result of the drying out of small bodies of salt water. This happens because celestine is soluble in water. According to some sources, the skeletons of such marine unicellular organisms as radiolarians consist of strontium sulfate. Such delicate skeletons are prevented from dissolving in water by a thin protein film, which disappears after the death of the creator cell.

DANGEROUS BERYLS

This is not the only stone of its kind with naturally elevated levels of radiation. For example, the yellow and golden-green varieties of beryl called heliodors, are colored this way because they contain uranium. A variety of pink and crimson beryl called morganite (sparrow) contains cesium atoms. These minerals definitely should not be irradiated with anything additional (neither with X-rays, nor especially in a nuclear reactor), and in general, it makes sense to refrain from purchasing and wearing particularly large stones, regardless of their jewelry value, rarity and beauty.

The higher the concentration of natural radioactive elements in the families of uranium, thorium, and potassium-40, the higher the radioactivity of rocks and ores. Based on radioactivity (radiological properties), rock-forming minerals are divided into four groups.

The minerals that are most radioactive are uranium (primary - uranite, pitchblende, secondary - carbonates, phosphates, uranyl sulfates, etc.), thorium (thorianite, thorite, monazite, etc.), as well as elements of the uranium family, thorium, etc., which are in a dispersed state .

Widespread minerals containing potassium-40 (feldspars, potassium salts) are characterized by high radioactivity.

Minerals such as magnetite, limonite, sulfides, etc. have moderate radioactivity.

Quartz, calcite, gypsum, rock salt, etc. have low radioactivity.

In this classification, the radioactivity of neighboring groups increases by approximately an order of magnitude.

The radioactivity of rocks is determined primarily by the radioactivity of rock-forming minerals. Depending on the qualitative and quantitative composition of minerals, conditions of formation, age and degree of metamorphism, their radioactivity varies within very wide limits. The radioactivity of rocks and ores based on the equivalent percentage of uranium is usually divided into the following groups:

almost non-radioactive rocks (U< 10 -5 %);

rocks of average radioactivity (U< 10 -4 %);

highly radioactive rocks and poor ores (U< 10 -3 %);

low-grade radioactive ores (U< 10 -2 %);

ordinary and high-grade radioactive ores (U< 0,1 %).

Practically non-radioactive include sedimentary rocks such as anhydrite, gypsum, rock salt, limestone, dolomite, quartz sand, etc., as well as ultrabasic, basic and intermediate rocks.

Acid igneous rocks are characterized by average radioactivity, and from sedimentary rocks - sandstone, clay and especially fine marine silt, which has the ability to adsorb radioactive elements dissolved in water.

In general, the content of radioactive elements in the hydrosphere and atmosphere is negligible. Groundwater can have different levels of radioactivity. It is especially high in underground waters of radioactive deposits and waters of sulfide-barium and calcium chloride types.

The radioactivity of soil air depends on the amount of emanations of radioactive gases such as radon, thoron, actinon. It is usually expressed by the coefficient of rock emanation (C e), which is the ratio of the number of long-lived emanations released into the rock (mainly radon with the highest T 1/2) to the total number of emanations.

In massive rocks C e = 5 - 10%, in loose fractured rocks C e = 40 - 50%, i.e. C e increases with increasing diffusion coefficient.

In addition to the total concentration of radioactive elements, an important characteristic of the radioactivity of media is the energy spectrum of the radiation or the energy distribution interval. As noted above, the energy of alpha, beta and gamma radiation from each radioactive element is either constant or contained in a certain spectrum. In particular, according to the hardest and most penetrating gamma radiation, each radioactive element is characterized by a certain energy spectrum.

For example, for the uranium-radium series, the maximum energy of gamma radiation does not exceed 1.76 MeV (megaelectron-volt), and the total spectrum is 0.65 MeV; for the thorium series, similar parameters are 2.62 and 1 MeV. The energy of potassium-40 gamma radiation is constant (1.46 MeV).

Thus, by the total intensity of gamma radiation, the presence and concentration of radioactive elements can be assessed, and by analyzing the spectral characteristics (energy spectrum), it is possible to determine the concentration of uranium, thorium or potassium-40 separately.

Or both of these elements; radium minerals - not reliably established. The diversity of uranium belonging to different classes and groups is due to the presence of uranium in tetra- and hexavalent forms, the isomorphism of tetravalent uranium with Th, rare earth elements (TR), Zr, and Ca, as well as the isomorphism of thorium with the TR of the cerium subgroup.

A distinction is made between radioactive materials, in which uranium (uranium minerals) or thorium (thorium minerals) are present as the main component, and radioactive materials, in which radioactive elements are included as an isomorphic impurity (uranium- and/or thorium-containing minerals). . K r. m does not include minerals containing a mechanical impurity of R. m. (mineral mixtures) or radioactive elements in sorbed form.

Uranium minerals are divided into two groups. One unites U 4+ minerals (always containing some U 6+), represented by uranium oxide - Uraninite UO 2 and its silicate - coffinitite U (SiO 4) 1-x (OH) 4x. Nasturanium (a type of uraninite) and coffinitite are the main industrial minerals of hydrothermal and exogenous uranium deposits; uraninite, in addition, is found in pegmatites (See Pegmatites) and Albitite. Powdery oxides (uranium black) and uranium hydroxides form significant accumulations in the oxidation zones of various uranium deposits (see Uranium ores). Uranium titanates (Brannerite UTi 2 O 6 and others) are known in pegmatites, as well as in some hydrothermal deposits. The second group combines minerals containing U 6+ - these are hydroxides (becquerelite 3UO 3 ․3H 2 O?, curite 2PbO ․5H 2 O 3 ․5H 2 O), silicates (uranophane Ca (H 2 O) 2 U 2 O 4 ( SiO 4)․3H 2 O, casolite Pb ․H 2 O), phosphates (Otenite Ca 2 2 ․8H 2 O, torbernite Cu 2 2 ․12H 2 O), arsenates (zeinerite Cu 2 2 ․12H 2 O), vanadates (Carnotite K 2 2 ․3H 2 O), molybdates (iriginite), sulfates (uranopilite), carbonates (uranothalite); all of them are common in oxidation zones of uranium deposits.

Thorium minerals - oxide (thorianite ThO 2) and silicate (thorite ThSiO 4) - are less common in nature. They are found as accessory minerals (See Accessory Minerals) in granites, syenites and pegmatites; sometimes form significant concentrations in various placers (see Thorium ores).

Uranium- and/or thorium-containing minerals - titanates (Davidite), titanotantalniobates (Samarskite, Columbite, pyrochlore (See Pyrochlores)), phosphates (Monazite), silicates (Zircon) - mostly dispersed in igneous and sedimentary rocks, causing their natural radioactivity (see Radioactivity of rocks). Only a small part of them (Davidite, monazite) forms significant concentrations and is a source of uranium and thorium. In radium-containing barite, isomorphic substitution of radium for barium is assumed.

Many minerals are characterized by a metamict state (see Metamict minerals). Inclusions of radioactive materials in grains of other minerals are accompanied by halos of radiation damage (pleochroic halos, etc.). A specific feature of R. m. is also the ability to form autoradiograms (see Autoradiography). The accumulation of stable isotopes in the ocean at a constant rate makes it possible to use them to determine the absolute age of geological formations (see Geochronology).

Lit.: Getseva R.V., Savelyeva K.T., Guide to the determination of uranium minerals, M., 1956; Soboleva M.V., Pudevkina I.A., Minerals of Uranium, M., 1957; Thorium, its raw materials, chemistry and technology, M., 1960; Heinrich E.U., Mineralogy and geology of radioactive mineral raw materials, trans. from English, M., 1962; Minerals. Directory, vol. 2, v. 3, M., 1967: the same, vol. 3, century. 1, M., 1972; Buryanova E.Z., Determinant of minerals of uranium and thorium, 2nd ed., M., 1972.

B.V. Brodin.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

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